Later Etruscan-Roman Wars Facts
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(c. 302–264 b.c.e.)
PRINCIPAL COMBATANTS: Rome vs. Etruscans (with Gallic and Epirean allies)
PRINCIPAL THEATER(S): Italy DECLARATION: None
MAJOR ISSUES AND OBJECTIVES: Rome sought to complete its conquest of Etruria; Etruria resisted.
OUTCOME: Despite a long guerrilla war, the Etruscan city-states fell under Roman domination and relinquished all independence.
APPROXIMATE MAXIMUM NUMBER OF MEN UNDER ARMS: Unknown
CASUALTIES: Etruscan-Gallic forces lost 25,000 at the Battle of Sentium; civilian losses late in these wars were much higher.
TREATIES: No documents exist.
The long series of Early Etruscan-Roman Wars (c. 509– 308 b.c.e.) was ended by a truce, which was quickly broken. The first new outbreak came at Arrentium (Arezzo) about 302 b.c.e. when citizens rose up against the Cilnii family, Etruscan rulers who were allied with the Romans. A Roman force was sent to intervene but was ambushed and defeated. After regrouping the Romans outflanked a would-be ambush at the Battle of Rusellae (Roselle) and defeated the rebels by overwhelming them with skillfully deployed cavalry units. This resulted in a two year truce, which, however, was not taken as binding by many of the rebels. These diehards recruited allies among the Gauls and others. A major battle was fought near Volterra in 298, resulting in an Etruscan-Gallic loss, and an even bigger disaster followed at Sentium in 295, when the rebels lost 25,000 men. This shook loose the towns of Rusellae, Perusia, and Volsinii (Bolsena) by 294.
The devastating defeat of the Etruscans and their allies ushered in a 40-year truce and extracted for Rome punishing indemnities. Yet again, despite the formal truce, a new Etruscan-Gallic counteroffensive was mounted in 283. Two battles were fought at Lake Vadimo, both resulting in defeat for the Etruscans and the Gauls. Epirus came to the aid of the Etruscans in the form of a force led by the able King Pyrrhus (319–272), who attacked Rome. While Epirus made headway, the Etruscans buckled at Vulci and Volsinii, which left Pyrrhus no choice but to abandon Rome and retreat to Tarentum (Taranto) on the coast of southern Italy. This resulted in the Roman War against Pyrrhus of Epirus.
As a result of their defeat, both Vulci and Volsinii lost their independence from Rome. Vulci submitted, but Volsinii rebelled against the Roman conquerors in 264. This proved a disastrous mistake, as Roman forces overwhelmed and devastated the city.
From this point on Etruria was at least nominally a Roman possession. In actuality, throughout the region a low level guerrilla war ensued during which Etruscan rebels sabotaged Roman war efforts elsewhere. Continual Etruscan provocation incited the Roman commander Lucius Cornelius Sulla (138–78) to embark on a punitive campaign throughout Etruria. Devastated, the Etruscans lost their grip on the last free cities, Valathrii (Volterra), in 80, and Perusia (Perugia) 40 years later.
The Flame Trees of Thika: Book And Film Review
French Civil War Facts (1871)
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PRINCIPAL COMBATANTS: French Communards vs. the Third French Republic
PRINCIPAL THEATER(S): Paris and other major French cities
DECLARATION: None
MAJOR ISSUES AND OBJECTIVES: The Communards rebelled against a French government humiliated by defeat in the Franco-Prussian War.
OUTCOME: The Communard rebellion was largely crushed during “Bloody Week,” May 21–28, 1871.
APPROXIMATE MAXIMUM NUMBER OF MEN UNDER ARMS: Communards, about 50,000; government forces, 130,000
CASUALTIES: Communards, 25,000 killed, 41,000 imprisoned; government, 879 killed, 6,775 wounded
This civil conflict was the direct result of France’s defeat in the Franco-Prussian War. The Battle of Sedan ended in a crushing French defeat and cut short the reign of Napoleon III (1808–73). In Paris, the Third French Republic was established, and Parisians resisted a Prussian siege until starvation forced their capitulation on January 28, 1871. The National Assembly, having evacuated to Bordeaux, negotiated the humiliating Treaty of Sedan with Prussia. Those legislators who had evacuated were primarily monarchist holdovers. The true republicans had remained in Paris, and it was these leaders who now repudiated the peace terms and proclaimed the Commune of Paris, a republic independent from the Third French Republic.
The Commune was proclaimed on March 18, 1871, and soon boasted a military strength exceeding 212,000, but in reality mustered no more than about 50,000. Against this army, which took to the streets of Paris in opposition to the new government led by Adolphe Thiers (1797–1877), were some 130,000 government troops under the command of the very able Marshal Patrice Mac-Mahon (1808–93).
The Communard army operated from behind barricades built mainly of the cobblestones of the Parisian streets. After desultory exchanges, Mac-Mahon decided to make a decisive move on May 21. With 70,000 troops, he stormed the barricades in a seven-day battle christened Bloody Week. The assault culminated in the capture of Communard headquarters at the Hôtel de Ville and the summary execution of thousands of Communards. In all, about 25,000 Parisians died, either in battle or by on the spot execution. Another 3,000 subsequently died in prison, and 270 were sentenced in court to execution. Some 7,500 revolutionaries were exiled.
The Paris Commune had been suppressed with unbridled brutality and decisiveness. Its destruction ensured the survival of the Third Republic and ended the Communards’ dream of a workers’ state.
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